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Hilmar Alquiros,
Philippines
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LEIBNIZ
The Genius of Geniuses
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
1 July
1646,
Leipzig,
Germany -
14 November
1716 Hanover

Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz was a profound thinker, whose ideas spanned mathematics,
philosophy, and logic, among other fields. Therefore he was called the
last universal genius or Polymath.
Leibniz's
correspondence contains around 15,000 letters with 1100 correspondents.
It is part of Leibniz's legacy, which is kept in Hanover and contains
around 50,000 numbers with around 200,000 sheets. The estate also
includes Leibniz's library and the only surviving copy of the
four-species calculating machine he constructed.
The complete digital
processing of all 200,000 sheets is estimated to be completed by
2055(!).

A) Leibniz and the Binary System

Leibniz,
renowned for his co-invention of calculus, also made
groundbreaking contributions by formalizing the binary system,
using just the digits 0 and 1 to represent all numbers. While binary
concepts had ancient roots as in the pre-Daoist I Ching in China
he was the first to mathematically systematize and recognize its
profound potential.

I Ching
hexagrams, owned by Leibniz, 1701
Leibniz
saw binary as a universal language, capable of simplifying calculations
and underpinning all logical processes—an idea that foreshadowed
modern computer science,
highlighing his genius and his ability to think beyond the constraints
of his time.
His
visionary work on binary, Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire,
published in 1703, laid the foundation for digital computing, making him
a true pioneer of the digital age. Leibniz's foresight, much like
Leonardo da Vinci's in his time, anticipated technological
advancements by centuries, cementing his legacy as one of history's
greatest intellectual innovators.

Visionary Thinking
Leibniz saw the binary system as not just a mathematical
curiosity but as a universal system that could simplify calculation and
potentially underpin all logical processes. His vision was deeply
connected to his philosophical quest for a universal language (lingua
characteristica universalis), a symbolic system that could capture
all human thought and reason (AI!). Leibniz believed that by reducing
complex ideas to binary code, any logical argument could be resolved
through calculation—a truly visionary idea that anticipated modern
computer science.
Comparison to Calculus
While Leibniz is widely known for co-inventing calculus
independently of Isaac Newton, his work on the binary system can be
considered equally, if not more, visionary in certain respects. Calculus
revolutionized mathematics, physics, and engineering, providing tools
that are still foundational today. However, the binary system laid the
groundwork for digital computing, which has transformed the modern world
in unprecedented ways. In a sense, the binary system's impact on
technology and society is comparable to, if not greater than, the
influence of calculus.
A Pioneer Ahead of His Time
Leibniz's
anticipation of the importance of binary arithmetic for computation,
over 200 years before the invention of the modern computer, marks him as
one of the most forward-thinking minds in history.
Like
Leonardo da Vinci,
perhaps his only peer as polymath, who imagined flying machines and
other inventions centuries ahead of their time, Leibniz envisioned a
world where all complex logical processes could be automated through
simple binary calculations
- just all thinking!
This
vision is now the foundation of all digital computers, making Leibniz
not just a great mathematician but a true pioneer of the digital age and
AI.

Modern Leipzig / Saxony
B)
Mathematics Contributions:
Leibniz's
contributions to mathematics are vast and foundational. Beyond his
pioneering work on the binary system, which underpins modern computer
science, he co-developed differential and integral calculus, introducing
the enduring Leibniz notation (dy/dx, ∫).
He
laid the groundwork for matrix theory through his early exploration of
determinants and formulated Leibniz's Rule, essential for
differentiating products of functions. His invention of the Stepped
Reckoner, an early calculating machine, marked a significant leap in
computational technology.
Additionally,
Leibniz made significant contributions to probability theory, complex
numbers, and topology, particularly in developing concepts related to
geometric positions and spatial relationships. His diverse and profound
contributions solidify his status as one of the most influential
mathematicians in history.

1.
Binary System (s. above):
Introduction of the binary number system, which is foundational to
modern computer science (see above).
2.
Calculus:
Development of
→
differential and integral calculus (Video) with the
introduction of the Leibniz notation
(dy/dx, ∫).
3.
Matrix Theory and Determinants:
Early work on the theory of determinants, laying the groundwork for
matrix theory.
4.
Leibniz's Rule:
A formula for differentiating products of functions, fundamental in
calculus.
5.
Theory of Determinants:
Contribution to the understanding and development of determinants,
important for linear algebra.
6.
Leibniz’s Calculator (Stepped Reckoner):
Leibniz
developed various mechanical devices, including an early version of a
calculating machine (Stepped Reckoner), which could perform addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. This invention was a
significant advancement in computational technology.
7.
Probability Theory:
Contributions to the early development of probability theory, including
discussions with contemporaries like Jakob Bernoulli.
8.
Early Work on Complex Numbers:
Contributions to the development and understanding of complex numbers.
9.
Topology and Analysis Situs:
Early work on topology, including the development of concepts related to
geometric position and spatial relationships.
C) Logic:
Leibniz
was a trailblazer in the field of logic, pioneering symbolic logic and
laying the groundwork for a universal language (Characteristica
Universalis) and a calculus of reasoning (Calculus Ratiocinator). His
contributions also foreshadowed the development of Boolean algebra,
which is crucial to digital logic and modern computer science.
Leibniz's
work in logic has had a lasting impact, providing essential foundations
that continue to influence contemporary mathematics, computer science,
and logical reasoning, underscoring his role as a visionary thinker
whose ideas have shaped the modern world.
1.
Symbolic Logic:
o
Pioneer of symbolic logic and the development of ideas leading to the
creation of a universal language (Characteristica Universalis)
and a calculus of reasoning (Calculus Ratiocinator).
2.
Precursor to Boolean Algebra:
o
Contributions to symbolic logic that can be seen as precursors to
Boolean algebra, which is essential to digital logic and computer
science.
→
History of Logic from Leibniz to Boole
(Video N. J. Wildberger).
Leibniz's impact on mathematics and logic continues to
influence modern fields like computer science, mathematics, and logical
reasoning. His innovations laid essential foundations that many other
thinkers and scientists have built upon.
D) Philosophy
Leibniz's
philosophy is marked by profound metaphysical and logical insights, most
notably through his development of Monadology, where he
conceptualized the universe as composed of simple, indivisible entities
called monads. These monads, though independent, operate in
pre-established harmony orchestrated by God, reflecting his solution
to the mind-body problem.
Leibniz
also introduced the Principle of Sufficient Reason, positing that
every event has a reason, influencing metaphysics and theology. His
optimism, encapsulated in the idea that we live in "the best of all
possible worlds," underpinned his Theodicy, which sought to reconcile
the existence of evil with a benevolent God.
Leibniz’s contributions extended to the Identity of Indiscernibles,
asserting that indistinguishable entities are identical, and his
relational theory of space and time, challenging Newton’s absolute
conceptions and foreshadowing modern physics.
His
vision for a universal language and symbolic logic aimed to
reduce human thought to precise calculations, influencing later
developments in logic. Leibniz’s work profoundly impacted subsequent
philosophers, including Kant and Hegel, and laid the groundwork for
German Idealism and modern logic.
Leibniz's
systematic approach, his efforts to reconcile differing viewpoints, and
his ambition to create a Unified system of knowledge continue to
resonate, securing his legacy as a towering figure in the history of
philosophy.
1. Monadology:
-
Concept of Monads:
In his Monadology,
Leibniz introduced the concept of monads, which he described as
simple, indivisible, and immaterial entities that make up the fabric
of reality. Each monad is unique and reflects the entire universe
from its own perspective. Monads do not interact with each other
directly but rather through pre-established harmony, orchestrated by
God.
-
Pre-established Harmony:
This idea
suggests that all events in the universe are synchronized in a
harmonious manner, without any direct causal interaction between
substances. This concept was Leibniz's solution to the mind-body
problem and the question of how non-material minds and material
bodies can interact.
2. Principle of Sufficient Reason:
-
Leibniz
formulated the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which posits that
nothing happens without a reason. This principle asserts that for
every event or fact, there must be an explanation, even if it is not
immediately apparent. This idea has influenced metaphysics,
theology, and science by promoting the search for causes and reasons
behind events.
3. Optimism and Theodicy:
-
Best
of All Possible Worlds:
Leibniz famously argued that the world we live in is "the best of
all possible worlds." This idea was developed as part of his
Theodicy, where he addressed the problem of evil by arguing that
while the world contains evil, it is necessary for the greater good
and for achieving the best possible world overall.
-
Theodicy: Leibniz's Theodicy was an
attempt to reconcile the existence of evil with the belief in a
benevolent and omnipotent God. He argued that evil exists because it
serves a purpose in the grand scheme of things and that God's
creation, with all its flaws, is still the best possible scenario
that could have been created.
4. Identity of Indiscernibles:
-
This
principle asserts that if two objects are indistinguishable from
each other in every respect, they are in fact the same object. This
idea has implications for metaphysics and the philosophy of
identity, challenging the notion that there could be two distinct
but completely identical entities.
5. Relational Theory of Space and Time:
-
Contrary
to Newton's view of space and time as absolute entities, Leibniz
argued that space and time are relational, meaning they exist only
in relation to objects and events. According to Leibniz, space is
the order of coexisting things, and time is the order of successive
events.
-
This
relational view influenced later thinkers and was a precursor to the
conceptions of space and time in modern physics.
6. Universal Language and Symbolic Logic:
-
Leibniz
was an early advocate for the development of a universal language or
characteristica universalis, a symbolic system that could
express all human knowledge in a precise and logical manner. He
envisioned this as a tool for resolving disputes by reducing
arguments to calculations, anticipating later developments in
symbolic logic and formal languages.
7. Leibniz’s Law:
-
Also
known as the Identity of Indiscernibles, this principle is central
to metaphysics and states that if two things share all their
properties, they are identical. This principle challenges the
existence of distinct but identical entities and has implications
for discussions of identity, existence, and individuality.
8. Influence on Subsequent Philosophers:
-
Leibniz’s ideas have had a profound influence on many later
philosophers, including Immanuel Kant, who grappled with and built
upon Leibnizian concepts in his own work. Leibniz’s metaphysics also
laid the groundwork for German Idealism, particularly in the work of
Hegel, and his logical ideas influenced the development of modern
logic
.jpg)
Painting by Christoph Bernhard Francke ~1695
9.
The Mother of all Questions...
of Being
„Pourquoi il y
a plutôt quelque chose que rien?“ Principes
de la Nature et de la Grace fondés en Raison, 1714 (First
in French)
„Warum
ist Etwas und nicht etwa Nichts?“ Die
Vernunftprinzipien der Natur und der Gnade, 1714 (Leibniz
= German)
„Why
is there something rather than nothing?“ The
rational principles of nature and grace, 1714 (translated
into English)
|
Great Axiom - mostly
the second subquestion was less considered or not even
mentioned:
„Nothing
exists without a reason being given (at least by an
omniscient being)
a) why it is
rather than is not, and
b) why it is so
rather than otherwise.“ (»pourqoi
elles [les choses] doivent exister ainsi, et non autrement« p.14
§7)
This is a
consequence of the great principle that „Nothing
happens without a reason“,
just as there must be a reason for this to exist rather than
that.
Lit.: H.
Alquiros:
→
Nothingness and Being. Potentialities of Ontological
Evolution. |
E)
Psychology
Leibniz made significant contributions to psychology,
particularly in his exploration of perception, apperception, and
consciousness. He distinguished between perception, the basic
internal state of the soul representing external things, and
apperception, the reflective and conscious awareness of these
perceptions.
This
distinction laid the groundwork for later developments in
self-awareness and introspection. Leibniz also proposed that
consciousness arises from the interaction of numerous subtle
perceptions, offering a layered approach to understanding the mind.
In
his famous windmill allegory, Leibniz critiqued the mechanistic
view of the mind, arguing that mental processes cannot be fully
explained by physical mechanisms alone. This thought experiment
foreshadowed modern discussions on the "hard problem of
consciousness."
Leibniz's
insights into perception, apperception, and consciousness have had a
lasting influence on both philosophical and psychological thought,
prefiguring concepts in cognitive science and phenomenology. Though
often integrated within his broader metaphysical system, Leibniz's ideas
remain foundational for understanding the complex interplay between the
mind's internal states and its reflective capacities.
Perception and Apperception
Leibniz
introduced the distinction between perception and apperception as a way
to differentiate between basic sensory experiences and higher-order
reflective awareness. In his Monadology (1714), Leibniz described
perception as the internal state of the soul that represents external
things, but without the explicit awareness that characterizes conscious
thought. Essentially, perception is a general term that Leibniz used to
denote any internal state, even those below the threshold of
consciousness.
Apperception, on the other hand, refers to the reflective and conscious
awareness of these perceptions. It’s the process by which perceptions
are recognized and understood by the mind. Leibniz’s emphasis on
apperception laid the groundwork for later developments in psychology,
influencing concepts of self-awareness and introspection.
Consciousness
Leibniz’s notion of consciousness is closely tied to his ideas of
perception and apperception. He believed that consciousness emerges from
the complex interactions of numerous perceptions, many of which might be
too subtle to be individually noticed. This idea was quite revolutionary
for its time, suggesting a layered approach to understanding the mind.
The Windmill Allegory
Leibniz’s
famous windmill allegory is a thought experiment that he used to
critique the mechanistic view of the mind, which was prevalent in the
philosophies of Descartes and others. In the allegory, Leibniz asks us
to imagine that the brain is like a large machine, such as a windmill.
Even if one were to enlarge the windmill and enter inside it, all one
would find are mechanical parts moving around—there would be no evidence
of thought, perception, or consciousness.
This allegory highlights Leibniz’s argument that mental processes
cannot be fully explained by physical mechanisms alone, as thoughts and
consciousness have qualities that go beyond mere physical interactions
(modern
“Hard problem of consciousness”).
Influence on Modern Thought
Leibniz's insights into the nature of perception, apperception, and
consciousness have had a lasting influence on later philosophical and
psychological thought. His ideas prefigure concepts in both cognitive
science and phenomenology, where the distinction between basic sensory
experiences and higher-order reflective processes continues to be
explored.
F)
Other Fields
Leibniz
was a true polymath, making significant contributions across various
fields beyond mathematics and logic.
In
linguistics, he advocated for a universal language (lingua
franca) to facilitate communication among scholars and contributed to
historical linguistics through his study of etymology and language
history.
As
a diplomat, he played a key role in European courts, particularly
in Hannover, where he engaged in political theory, promoting the
balance of power to prevent the dominance of any single nation—an
early precursor to modern international relations.
In
law and history, Leibniz, trained as a lawyer, contributed to
natural law theory and worked extensively on the history of the House of
Brunswick to establish its noble lineage.
His
theological work focused on reconciling religious differences,
especially between Protestants and Catholics, and he engaged in
discussions on free will, the existence of evil, and divine providence.
In
physics, Leibniz made important contributions to the concepts of
kinetic energy, the conservation of momentum, and the early formulation
of the principle of least action, which later became fundamental
in the field.
· Linguistics:
Leibniz had a keen interest in language and was an advocate for the
creation of a universal language or lingua franca that
would facilitate communication among scholars from different nations. He
also studied etymology and the history of languages,
contributing to the development of historical linguistics.
·
Diplomacy and Political Theory:
As a diplomat, Leibniz played a significant role in the courts of
Europe, particularly in Hannover. He engaged in political theory,
advocating for a balance of power in Europe and promoting ideas
that would prevent the dominance of any single nation, which was an
early concept of what would later be known as international relations.
·
Law and History:
Leibniz was trained as a lawyer and made contributions to legal theory,
particularly in the development of natural law theory. He also
worked extensively on the history of the House of Brunswick, aiming to
establish its noble lineage.
·
Theology:
Leibniz's work in theology included attempts to reconcile religious
differences, especially between Protestants and Catholics. He sought
to find common ground among different Christian denominations and was
involved in discussions on the nature of free will, the
existence of evil, and the role of divine providence.
·
Physics:
Leibniz made important contributions to the development of the concept
of kinetic energy and the conservation of momentum. He also
worked on the early formulation of the principle of least action,
which later became fundamental in physics.
Leibniz's
wide-ranging achievements reflect his belief in the
interconnectedness of all branches of knowledge, laying the
foundation for many modern disciplines and showcasing his unparalleled
intellectual versatility.
→
THE LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE

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________________________
H. Alquiros. # 556:
Leibniz.
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The Philippines
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